Since this poor fuel cell string has evolved into a theoretical discussion, I gotta' kick in here.
For my part, I do not believe that mass and energy are directly interchangable. For me it is a one way street.
True particulate, rest type, inertial mass can be converted to energy, but not vice-versa into the stable universe.
You might say, "odd Richard, for you are a fusion guy and fusion is a classic example of energy into mass."
I would say not really. Are any new stable particles whole formed? The answer is, of course, no. The extra mass in assembly of the higher nuclei is not in whole formed honestly charged particles, but in ever increasing and often horrendous binding energy and nothing else. The whole formed particles representing this binding energy, you might imagine, are Neutrinos, mesons, extra quarks, etc formed to hold the whole thing together, but these are no more real particles than mother gooses characters are real entities.
The classic photon to electron positron pair production is an ephemeral microsecond event which leaves the universe not with matter from energy, but just another weaker photon.
When all the smoke clears from any real world interaction, we are only talking about protons, electrons and neutrons and a lot of binding energy locked down (fusion) or released (fission) or ever enfeebled photon chains. No where will you find a single whole formed, non paired, charged particle such as an electron or proton.
The neutron is a normal hydrogen atom which was forged into a neutron in a stellar interior. Fusion futher forged this to the protons around it into deuterium and so on up the chain. Beta decay returns the neutron to it base particles out in the open, a proton and and electron. Some form of as yet un- appreciated reaction did more than just shrink the hydrogen atom, but fused the electron and proton pairs in a shared combination to make deuterium. The electron-proton dance within the nucleus is the electrostatic glue of the atom and with each neutron-proton addition in higher fusions, more and more energy is required to link these up in a stable union of shared charge exchanges in much the same way as the total energy expended in weaving a piece of cloth pales in compraison to the finished piece's structural strength and integrity.
Photons and energy are not endemic to the universe, but the result solely of kinetic, gravimetric, charge-mass interations. Photons are not part of nature, but its waste products which are forever lossey. (entropy) These are the result of matter assembling itself to ever higher forms. as charge and gravity are isolated and locked up by there own form of APPARENT energy to mass conversion via fusion. The measured mass increase is not in primary particles, but in binding energy which will never allow that energy back out ever again unless gravity intervenes...... For at the nuclear level, and for all stable elements, the contained nuclear charges and the energy of fusion are forever lost to the universe.
Think only about the vast and final results, and the little subliminal events occuring in our Gev accelerator nuclear reactions which are truly, cosmically non-existant are of no effective value or consequence.
The universe is a bulk place. 99 percent of the energy is nuclear and happening at or below the Mev level where only electrons, protons and neutrons are seen to be extant over epochs. On earth, 99.99999999999999999999999999999% of all energetic reactions involve only 1 single outer shell electron with a max energy of ~15ev.
With all this, we still seek to imagine and tickle ourselves with an imagined or real particle zoo only extant or heralded by energies present billions of years ago. Nature has long ago relegated such particles if they ever existed to an instant death status if brought back by sub-microscopic, creation event, energy densities in man's shabby little dabblings.
Hey, the universe moved on, shouldn't we?
Atoms are the smallest useful things in the universe at present and we can also just perceive and work with the ghostly apparentional big three (proton, electron and neutron). Electrons are easy and are the main source of all earthly created energy. The protons and neutrons, with some extreme effort, can be put to real use, albeit far out of proportion and effeciency to the result. Below this level we will never phatom or make functionally efficient wheelwork.
Richard Hull
Created on Monday, June 04, 2001 5:35 PM EDT by Richard Hull